460. Knowing your worth in the diverse world of freelancing

Emilia Benton has been running toward her goals for a long time, picking up valuable lessons along the way.

Seeing the editor’s note in each issue of her favorite magazine, Cosmo Girl, inspired Benton as a teenager to write in and ask founding editor Atoosa Rubenstein for advice. “I thought this was a career I would be interested in. She wrote back with a ton of advice, a page worth, which I printed out and put up on my wall,” Benton says.

It was all good advice, encouraging her to write for her high school paper and, if she was serious about pursuing a career in journalism, especially magazine journalism, she should consider going to college near or in New York City, because that would provide the advantage for in-person interviews.

Emilia Benton is a freelance writer.

It’s all advice Benton followed, attending Hofstra University on Long Island, a mere 25-minute train ride to the heart of the city. Two years after graduating, and after internships at a handful of magazines, including Cosmo Girl, Benton returned to her home in Houston looking for something new.

After some time as a copy editor on special projects for the Houston Chronicle and some time with the Texas Medical Center, where she used her editorial skills working on informed consent forms for clinical trials, Benton found herself out of work.

“I had all this time on my hands and had a story idea I wanted to pitch to Runner’s World,” says Benton, an avid runner. “I had never had to submit a story pitch before and I didn’t know how to go about it.”

She reached out to a friend who had connections there and was told who to direct the story to and how to set up the pitch and, despite not really feeling confident in herself or the pitch, Benton sent it off.

“They accepted it and it got a really great response from their audience, which surprised me,” Benton says. “I thought this would be a one-time thing and I didn’t expect to continue to freelance for the meantime. I was able to spend the next year and a half pursuing relationships that allowed me to get where I am now.”

Benton continues to freelance for Runner’s World and other publications, including the Houston Chronicle, but admits sometimes she’ll accept a lower-paying assignment based on the publication and topic.

“Having worked on staff on a publication that has freelancers, I empathize that these places have budgets to work with,” she says. “There are things I take into consideration if the place is offering me too low (a fee). If someone is asking for a 1,000-word article with at least two interviewed sources and they’re offering $200 or less, that’s ludicrous.”

The variety in her work has also afforded Benton some perspective on the pluses and minuses of working in a culturally diverse city like Houston. While the local broadcast stations employ a diverse range of reporters, “salary growth is still stagnant for people and women of color. That was my experience there. That’s a reason I had to leave my job at the Chronicle. After doing some investigation and talking to coworkers and peers, as a woman of color I was earning a lot less than my white male counterparts.”

She points to the graphics and information posted on social media for Equal Pay Day, a day in late March in which a white woman has earned the equivalent of her white male counterparts in the previous year. The graphics typically show how much less women and people of color earn compared to white men and “you’ll see Latinos are at the very bottom of the chain.”

The disparity doesn’t end there: Benton has noticed her work will be referenced on social media or podcasts but she isn’t named, while similar work by white male writers almost always includes their information. “This is an example of unconscious bias,” she says. “Is there any like of thinking behind it? Is it oh, no one’s going to know this writer? That contributes to the problem. I don’t bring that up to harp on my follower counts, but being mentioned by name could make or break being noticed by someone in the industry and getting an opportunity.”

It’s All Journalism producer Amelia Brust talks with freelance reporter Emilia Benton. They discuss their shared love of running and how Benton has learned how to be a successful freelance writer by doing.

445. Investigative reporter exposes maid abuse in Beirut

458. How service journalism helps solve community problems

At the root, most journalism is some kind of service journalism. But only by listening to the audience can journalists really provide the service they believe they offer.

“We’ve had this ‘teacher at the front of the class’ mentality,” says Megan Griffith-Greene, the service features editor at the Philadelphia Inquirer. “‘We’re going to tell you what’s important and you’re going to sit there and listen and then we’ll move on.’ That perspective has been pretty white and male and kind of elitist and it’s failing. It’s not working. It doesn’t serve people.”

Service journalism, Griffith-Greene says, can fill this gap and more newsrooms are realizing the value and importance of what had previously been “maligned” and considered the stuff of women’s magazines.

Megan Griffith-Greene is the service features editor at the Philadelphia Inquirer.

She defines service journalism as helping people solve problems. “As journalists, I think we’re very good at pointing out problems. We’re less good at helping people solve them.

“Good service journalism is really hard to do,” she says. “It’s really hard to do a good job with this, to provide a good and useful resource for people. It’s not as easy as I think people assume.”

The core of service journalism is finding what people need to know in their daily lives, what information they need to make decisions, and helping them find and utilize it, she says.

“There’s a shift to being more listening focused, more community focused; listening to what people tell us, that this is the information we need and centering our reporting on that,” Griffith-Greene says.

This also helps make reporters essential to the communities in which they live and work. “It feels like an obvious place to start, but what do you need? What do you need help with and how can we be an access point,” she says. “We have access to a range of experts. We can help people solve those problems. We’re uniquely positioned to help people solve those problems. It’s an important step in building trust and becoming essential to our communities.”

It’s All Journalism host Michael O’Connell talks with Megan Griffith-Greene, service features editor at the Philadelphia Inquirer. They discuss what service journalism means, how it can help reporters better understand their communities and why it’s no longer the territory of women’s magazines.

#359 Reporter uses pop-up newsrooms to amplify Philly’s unheard voices

457. New Humanitarian’s mission-centric focus a model for other newsrooms

A brochure left on her desk by her father changed the direction of Heba Aly’s life.

Born to Egyptian parents in Canada, Aly’s heart had two passions: journalism and human rights.

The brochure was for an internship in Senegal, writing for a United Nations-founded publication that covered international efforts to provide humanitarian assistance, originally to Rwanda following the genocide there in 1995. Aly is now the CEO of The New Humanitarian, formerly called IRIN, and remains as passionately committed to providing mission-based coverage of international crises.

Heba Aly is the CEO of The New Humanitarian.

“We began as an information coordination product under the helm of the UN. We’ve evolved to become the bona fide newsroom we are today, moving toward a more journalistic approach, growing offices around the world from an East Africa focus and incorporating more storytelling,” she says. “The mission of informing how the world responds to crises has remained.”

As a general reporter with the CBC in Canada, she was never able to dive too deeply into a story or an issue, but that kind of reporting is at the core of The New Humanitarian.

“We have a depth of knowledge that allows our journalism, we hope, to be much richer and ring much more true because we follow it day in and day out,” Aly says. “We know what matters, we know the community that follows it.”

But what really sets her newsroom apart is that it is a nonprofit and writers are not unduly influenced by advertisers.

“We’re driven by a mission, not profit,” she says. “We’re free from the pressure of getting eyeballs for the sake of it. We face pressure from donors in the way advertisers will put pressure on the way you do your job, but we have fared much better in the current environment compared to commercial outlets because we have a loyal audience that cares deeply about what we do.”

Aly said she believes this model will continue to gain strength and support going forward and that, in no small way, the COVID-19 pandemic has helped to underscore this.

“Our audience tripled during the pandemic because people yearned for information about the humanitarian crisis. That’s not just the international policy makers that usually dominate our audience but even people in countries,” she says. “In Tanzania, we did a piece on how the true toll of the virus was being hidden. That was shared widely across the country because people were looking for information they could trust and they couldn’t trust the government. I think, on a global level, there’s a renewed recognition of this kind of work.”

It’s All Journalism host Michael O’Connell is joined by Heba Aly, CEO of The New Humanitarian, an independent nonprofit newsroom covering humanitarian crises. She discusses how her publication handled the COVID-19 pandemic and why her newsroom might be a model for other outlets as advertising dollars shrink.

456. What Is Life shares stories of prisoners facing life sentences

When someone is sentenced to life in prison in Pennsylvania, as things currently stand, there is very little chance of stepping outside again.

“Right now, life means life in prison,” says Joshua Vaughn, creator of the What Is Life? podcast.

“It means you, for the most part, will not get out. One of the only options to get out of life in prison is a commutation.”

John Fetterman, Pennsylvania’s lieutenant governor, has made some strong efforts to re-start the commutation process moving again after a 30-year period of being stagnant, Vaughn says, but it’s still a small step: of the 5,400 people currently serving life in prison in Pennsylvania, some 40-50 people in the past two years have been released.

The number of people facing life sentences in the state has ballooned since the 1970s, from around 700 people to more than 5,000, Vaughn says. “That is as many people as we had serving any time in prison in the ‘60s and ‘70s.”

The What Is Life? podcast, a “passion project” for Vaughn, involves asking some of these men and women to respond to a short writing prompt: What is life?

“None of the stories have to answer that directly and most don’t incorporate that directly into their story,” he says. “I just wanted to give them the opportunity to tell their story. One gentleman talked about his experience in the courtroom when he was sentenced. One man wrote an open letter to his wife on the outside. One wrote about what his day is like. Some people have written about COVID. A woman wrote poetry about her life leading up to her crime and getting sentenced and coming to a reckoning for what she’d done.”

He notes that while the people facing a life sentence are involved in serious crimes, not all murder charges stem from the same kind of incident.

“We have this perception of what the crime is when someone is convicted of murder, but there’s a broad range of what has happened,” he says. “Some people who did some horrible things when they were younger, they directly took a life and it’s talking to them about how they’ve grown and changed.”

Others were convicted for a murder that occurred during a robbery: Someone had a gun, there was a struggle, someone was killed, or someone dies of a heart attack during the incident. “One man was out with his friends. He says he did not know they were planning to rob a restaurant. They went in, a friend pulled a gun. He says he ran out; a patron says he tried to stop the robbery but all five of them were sentenced to life under this doctrine of felony murder,” Vaughn says. “It’s the same sentence, it’s a mandatory minimum sentence.”

Each episode of the podcast is about 15 minutes long and is recorded through prison phone calls. “One of the things we do as a society is we take people, put them away and we put them out of sight and out of mind. That is one of the ways we are able to do some of the harsh and very draconian things we do to people. We say you did this awful thing, you’re a monster. … These are human beings. They are capable of growth, they are capable of redemption.”

It’s All Journalism host Michael O’Connell talks with Joshua Vaughn, a senior multimedia reporter for The Appeal and creator of the What Is Life? podcast. Vaughn describes the podcast as a “passion project” that features conversations with people sentenced to life in prison in who are unlikely to be released. Listen to What Is Life? on iTunes, Spotify, or GooglePlay.

#234 – DIY approach to data scraping bolsters crime coverage

455. Making Google, Facebook pay their fair share for news

The news industry is today where the music industry was 100 years ago. That’s the viewpoint of David Chavern, president and CEO of the News Media Alliance, an Arlington, Virginia-based nonprofit organization representing digital and print news publishers around the world.

“Music in the 19th century was a print business,” he says. “They controlled their distribution. With the advent of recording devices, they had to develop music licensing over a 15-year period to collect value everywhere music was being played to return value to the publishers and artists.”

News, in the form of printed newspapers, “used to have the most direct relationship you can have with a customer. We manufactured a physical product, then walked it up your driveway and handed it to you in your bathrobe. We now have a couple major companies that stand between us and our audience and they control everything about that, including taking most of the value from that interaction. We need a better deal from our digital distributors to sustain an industry.”

Oddly, while Google and Facebook feel like they have a monopoly on the distribution of digital information on their platforms and in terms of their global reach, U.S. antitrust laws, as currently written, protect the digital giants from the news industry.

The News Media Alliance is working to change that, by way of supporting legislation that would allow digital and print publishers and news organizations to enter into contract negotiations as a unit in order to get better price structures for news publishers from internet agents.

There’s precedent for this action: Australia just passed a new negotiating code that says Google and Facebook have to engage in negotiations with publishers. “They have to be fair and deal with fair value,” Chavern says. “If there’s a dispute, there’s an arbitration system backing it up. This is new to all news publishing but Google and Facebook already pay to license music. They pay to license sports clips. They pay for a lot of content. But for historic reasons, they’ve haven’t had to do that for news.”

Introduced during the last congressional session and just reintroduced recently, the Journalism Competition and Preservation Act would allow news publishers — both digital and physical media — to negotiate collectively with technological platforms for fair compensation for the use of their news content.

The bill, when introduced originally, had bipartisan support and there is current interest from members of Congress to not only support the bill as written but to help strengthen it.

Of course, this won’t be an easy fight.

Google and Facebook “have not taken a public position that I’m aware of but they’re actively lobbying against it,” Chavern says. “That’s the nature of business. I just did a hearing (recently) and there was this bizarre farcical framing about Big Media and Big Tech, a false equivalence between the two. If you roll up all my membership, 2,000 publishers including the biggest ones and the smallest, if we rolled them all up, their revenues are nothing compared to Google and Facebook. We feel the heat from the massive lobbying capacity from their platforms, but we’re fighting for something right and there’s power in that.”

It’s All Journalism host Michael O’Connell talks with David Chavern, president and CEO of the News Media Alliance, an Arlington, Virginia-based nonprofit organization representing digital and print news publishers around the world. They discuss new legislative efforts to help news publishers get paid fair value for their content by Facebook and Google and the precedent set in Australia to make this happen.

454. Solutions Journalism tackles community problems

Karen Magnuson of the Solutions Journalism Network spent most of her career in news writing and reporting on the troubles in cities and towns in Michigan, California, and Kansas before becoming the managing editor of the Rochester (NY) Democrat & Chronicle. It was during her time at the Gannett-owned paper that she was introduced to the concept of solutions journalism.

“We invited people from the Solutions Journalism Network to come in and do workshops,” she says. “We were very interested in applying the solutions lens to our education reporting. For many years, we kept reporting on the problems with our city schools but nothing was happening in terms of improving the situation.”

Solutions journalism is a different kind of investigative reporting. It is “rigorous, evidence-based reporting on responses to social problems,” she says. “It’s not journalism for the faint of heart. It’s very rigorous, like prosecuting a story, just as you would if you were conducting an investigation of a problem. Looking at a solution to determine whether something has evidence that actually backs up its progress and being able to help solve the problem, but also its limitations.”

While the initial project in Rochester was, she now realizes, “sticking our toe in the water,” as they applied the solutions journalism lens as part of a series, Magnuson has made a deeper investment in the concept. She’s about to mark her one-year anniversary as project director for the Solutions Journalism Network.

Readers of the Democrat & Chronicle appreciated the different take in covering education and Magnuson’s successor at the paper remains committed to the approach.

“You can’t just do a one-off and think you’re going to change the world,” she says. “It’s the kind of approach that can really transform a newsroom but also build trust in a community if readers, users and viewers see that you’re consistently trying to help solve problems instead of unearthing it.”

Now Magnuson is leading an effort across 26 news organizations in New York and Michigan to “leverage their talents, raise awareness on a topic and develop relationships where they can rely on each other and strengthen the media ecosystem.” Their initial project will focus on caregivers for the aging population. “A lot of the issues we looked at prior to the pandemic have been exacerbated by COVID-19,” she says. “The topic has taken on a sense of urgency in addition to being critical because of the growing population of older adults.”

It’s All Journalism host Michael O’Connell talks with Karen Magnuson, project director for the Solutions Journalism Network. They discuss what solutions journalism is, how it differs from investigative journalism and her new effort in New York and Michigan to apply solutions journalism to the topic of caregivers for the aging population.

434. Put community at the center of your journalism

453. Making sure Wikipedia shows that Women Do News

Women might be a fixture in journalism, but more could be done to help ensure their presence is secured and thriving. One group of women thinks Wikipedia could be a great avenue to accomplish that goal.

Women Do News is an online effort to create Wikipedia pages for women in news, not just those who are in front of the camera or scoring above-the-fold bylines, but for those who work behind the scenes and often don’t get the accolades or attention they deserve.

“The broader picture of that is we want to raise the profile of women in our industry,” says Angilee Shah, one of the founders of the campaign. “We’ve been cut out of history and the record of news in this country. Wikipedia is a symptom of that and a place where we can start to make sure our stories are part of how we understand news in this country. It’s a simple mission in a lot of ways but it has deep roots in what we’re trying to do to uplift the status of women in news media.”

The campaign was launched by a small group who were part of Take The Lead’s 2019 50 Women Can Change the World in Journalism cohort. The group wants to correct the current state of things: Only 18 percent of biographies on Wikipedia are about women, and more than 90 percent of contributing editors on Wikipedia are men.

“The ripple effect of having a Wikipedia article are pretty big,” Shah says. “It’s a place where we could do something small that would ripple across the internet in ways that are outsized for the effort we put in.”

Jareen Imam

Work like this matters, especially for women who aren’t public figures or recognized names in news.

“It’s harder for women who don’t have that kind of space for name recognition to go and pursue other stories and investigative work because they might not be searchable on the internet. That’s what sources do (before agreeing to speak with a reporter). Wikipedia is a stepping stone for us to add profiles online so female journalists can be recognized for the work they do with colleagues who might be more notable,” says Jareen Imam, director of social newsgathering at NBC News and a member of the International Women’s Media Foundation.

More than that, having a Wikipedia page adds credibility to a woman’s name and online presence. For women who work in news in other countries, they can be the target of disinformation campaigns, sometimes backed by their governments, to discredit or harm them.

“All that disinformation that might happen to women operating in countries like Brazil or India or other places where it’s highly volatile to get the truth out, Wikipedia can rank highly in a search,” she says. “If you search her name, you’ll see that entry first, before the disinformation campaign. It has a big implication with safety and also safeguarding women and their reputations as journalists, especially in places where freedom of speech and freedom of the press is not always guaranteed.”

It’s All Journalism host Michael O’Connell talks with Angilee Shah and Jareen Imam about the Women Do News campaign, which is creating Wikipedia entries for women in news to help raise their profiles and credibility.

452. Journalism charter school inspires DC’s young writers

At the age of 11, Marco Clark was misdiagnosed by a teacher as having some educational challenges. At the age of 11, Marco Clark was misdiagnosed by a teache

This led to him graduating high school in five years instead of four, with a 1.6 grade point average and scoring 480 on the SATs. But he didn’t give up.

“In college, I realized I had a challenge in reading comprehension and part of that was that I lived out the label given to me at 11-years old around the ability to comprehend appropriately based on a misdiagnosis on an assessment,” he says. These miscues and systemic failings inspired him to double down and work harder to become an educator, working as a teacher, dean, assistant principal and then principal.

Dr. Marco Clark is the CEO and founder of the Richard Wright Public Charter School for Journalism and Media Arts in Washington, D.C.,

But at every turn, he found that students didn’t have enough of a voice in their own education to really get what they needed out of schools.

Now he’s the founder and CEO of the Richard Wright Public Charter School for Journalism and Media Arts in Washington, D.C., a school established to help students learn how to gain the skills they need to be good writers and producers and to pursue careers in journalism.

“I decided to open a school in some of the poorest areas of the District, in Wards 7 and 8, recognizing that these students would have an issue with reading and writing and math,” Clark says. “I figured if we came up with a thematic base that would say we can focus on journalism, which, in turn, our hope would be, if you improve their reading skills, their writing would improve. They would develop a voice and begin to uplift people one person at a time.”

The school is named after Richard Wright, “a great writer and advocate for his community,” Clark says. “Now you have the school and it encompasses the name of a person who fought for the same exact thing I do.”

Charter schools are public schools that students can apply to attend, without restrictions or requirements based on grades, abilities or where they live. Students apply to attend and, if there’s a seat for them, they’re allowed to enroll.

“Whether bright or broken or behavioral issues, we serve them and we do it well,” he says. Charter schools also have more accountability than public schools, in that while they have autonomous control over the students’ curriculum, a failing charter school will be closed down while failing traditional schools will remain open.

The curriculum at the Richard Wright Charter School focuses on writing and photojournalism, in addition to production and behind-the-scenes technology.

“We have kids now working on podcasts,” Clark says. “We have a radio station where we’re putting the communications out there. As they walk away, they will have a wealth of this information and knowledge that will hopefully navigate them to a career in journalism and mass communications.”

It’s All Journalism host Michael O’Connell talks with Dr. Marco Clark, founder and CEO of the Richard Wright Public Charter School for Journalism and Media Arts in Washington, D.C. He explains how educational issues in his own childhood made him passionate about helping students have more of a voice in their own education and why charter schools are held more accountable in exchange for more autonomy.

421. Teach journalism to expand a kid’s worldview

451. Axios newsletter tackles local news in Tampa Bay

Selene San Felice might only be a few years into her career, but she has learned and seen quite a bit. One of the things she’s learned is that a newsletter is a great way for reporters to connect with and cover a community.

A native of Maryland, San Felice went to college in Tampa Bay and, as life would have it, she’s now working from her Maryland home for a new Axios newsletter based in Tampa Bay with her mentor, Ben Montgomery.

In the interim, she spent 3 1/2 years at the Capital Gazette, including the terrible day when her editor and four other colleagues were killed back in 2018.

Selene San Felice recently started a new job working on Axios’ Tampa Bay newsletter.

“I started at the Capital as a general assignment reporter. I was a night shift person, which meant I ended at 9 p.m. I covered late meetings, I’d cover a vigil every now and then. But mostly I was doing a lot of features,” she says. “They’d have you do human interest features and I loved doing that. I fell in love with doing features.”

The horrible tragedy at the Capital Gazette and the looming sale to a hedge fund (which has since changed course) also underscored for San Felice the importance and power of local newspapers.

“I think that, especially working at a place like Axios, a national outlet where we’re going into local news, we want to make sure we’re having friendly competition but also lifting up local outlets,” she says. “If the Times has a great feature, I can point people to that. I learned that lesson at the Capital when I walked out of the newsroom that day and thought this is it, we’re going to be shut down, and we kept putting the paper out the day after and every day after that.”

She’s also learning the benefit of newsletters, something she would’ve laughed off a year or two ago.

“I didn’t take newsletters seriously,” San Felice says. “I have learned that it is incredibly hard to do a newsletter. It needs to be something that’s not overwhelming and people need to get their news. I think it’s a really awesome thing when I open my Axios newsletter in the morning, I’m more inclined to open it up because I’m going to get what I need in three minutes. It’s fast and I can move on with my day.”

She and Montgomery have also decided to let their own personalities shine through, including little notes at the bottom of each newsletter telling readers what they’re reading, or watching, or listening to, or cooking.

“You get to know us as journalists and people,” San Felice says. “I think that’s part of what the news is all about. It’s about having that good beat reporter you know you can depend on. The news should also be fun, as hard and difficult and overwhelming as it is, if you like us, you should be able to get to know us as well.”

It’s All Journalism host Michael O’Connell talks with Selene San Felice, a new reporter with Axios in Tampa Bay. She discusses her newfound respect for newsletters, the importance of local news and why her new outlet will help lift up what others might consider the competition.

427. Crime reporting: Covering violence and trauma

450. Gulf States Newsroom launches to share regional stories nationally

Priska Neely is overseeing and managing a new journalism collaborative startup, NPR’s Gulf States Newsroom, to help public media stations in Alabama, Louisiana and Mississippi share regionally important stories on healthcare, criminal justice and issues of wealth and poverty.

In some ways, her reporting and this new initiative are deeply linked to the work she’s been doing most of her life.

While at KPPC in LA, Neely covered issues pertaining to children between the ages of birth and 5. “I did a lot of stories about curriculum and child care issues in LA and California,” she says. “The story that took over my life was about Black infant mortality. I heard that Black babies are twice as likely to die as white babies in the first year of their life. As a Black woman, I was shocked. That was the first time hearing that.”

It was a personal story and statistic for her: “My sister lost two babies that were born premature. My other sister had my nephew premature. They didn’t know that statistic. They didn’t know their own personal statistics were wrapped up in that trend of racism, of being a Black woman in America and how that plays out in your own health outcomes. That was one of my driving questions: Does the community that this impacts even realize they’re part of it?”

The first story out from Gulf States Newsroom, by Shalina Chatlani, the health care reporter based at WWNO in New Orleans, explores a different element of the same core problem of systemic racism and disparities in health care access.

NPR’s new station investigations team had some data about where vaccination sites were placed in major cities across the South and were exploring disparities around race.

“Her story looked at Baton Rouge, where there aren’t many medical facilities, pharmacies or grocery stores, places where the (COVID-19) vaccine is being distributed,” Neely says. “The data showed that three-quarters of sites people had access to were in the southern part of the city, in mostly white areas. She was able to go there and talk to leaders in the north part of the city about pre-existing issues and how this is life for them. They’re now seeing that inequity in the vaccine rollout.”

The story was broadcast by all three stations involved in the Gulf States Newsroom and the reporter was involved in an NPR roundtable with a reporter from another state.

“She’s going to have a version of the story that we did locally, regionally and on NPR nationally, too,” Neely says. “It’s fulfilling and checking all the boxes: we shared content in three states and issues from this region,” but it will also find a national audience, something Neely hopes to do on a regular basis with the new initiative.

It’s All Journalism host Michael O’Connell talks with Priska Neely, managing editor of the new Gulf States Newsroom project from NPR. She talks about her career in journalism and the new initiative to help tell important stories from Alabama, Louisiana and Mississippi across the region and the nation.

423. Covering Black communities with nuance and purpose

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